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One Way
to Improve Communication Strategies
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L2 learners continually
find themselves in situations for which they lack the vocabulary to express certain
desires or needs. In such cases, learners employ communication strategies like
paraphrasing in order to negotiate a shared meaning. I use the term "communication
strategies" to refer to those strategies that a speaker employs in conversation to
compensate for missing knowledge (Tarone 1983). Some researchers (Ellis 1985) prefer the
term "compensatory strategies" whereas others (Oxford 1990) substitute the term
"compensation strategies."
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Whether or not to teach communication strategies
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Paraphrasing is not
something unique to second-language learning. It occurs in one's native language, as when
a typical customer attempts to explain to a mechanic what is wrong with his car but lacks
the technical vocabulary to do so, or when parents and teachers explain complex concepts
to children. Many researchers in second-language acquisition (Cook 1991; Bialystok 1990)
do not believe that L2 learners need to be specifically taught how to use communication
strategies since they already use them in their Ll. According to Kellermann and his
colleagues (1990), the strategies which involve substituting one word for another form
part of every speaker's communicative competence and are applicable to other languages. On
the other hand, some L2 researchers (e.g., Oxford 1990; O'Malley and Chamot 1990) argue
that training students in the use of communication strategies-and learning strategies in
general-helps them become better language learners. Whatever one's opinion on the teaching
of strategies, few could question the benefits derived from reminding L2 learners that
such strategies are at their disposal (i.e., consciousness-raising) and providing the
students with opportunities to use these strategies.
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A rationale for using crossword puzzles
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One means of providing
students with practice in the use of paraphrasing strategies is incorporating crossword
puzzles into a communicative activity. With today's emphasis on the importance of using
communicative pairwork activities in the language classroom, L2 learners experience a
greater need for communication/compensatory strategies to plug the gaps that exist not
only in their own vocabulary and grammar but also in that of their L2 classroom
interlocutors.
| It’s something (that) you use{ |
to + V |
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for + V+ing |
| It’s something (that) you see{ |
if + you + V |
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when you + V |
| It’s something (that) you do{ |
if you + V |
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when you + V |
| It’s a place where . . . |
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| It’s someone who . . . |
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| It looks like . . . |
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Prior to giving the
students a crossword puzzle, it is a good idea to run through some of the language
typically used in circumlocution. For example, as a warm-up to the main task, the teacher
could model an answer by defining an object or an action and then urge the class to ask
him/her more questions to narrow down the range of possibilities. The students could
practice further in pairs until the teacher feels comfortable that they are adept in using
these expressions. Once this stage is reached, the students are ready for the puzzle
itself.
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Instructions for the main task
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The answers for the
following crossword puzzles are words that were familiar to the students in a particular
class; i.e., they had seen and/or heard them in previous lessons. As can be seen in the
diagram, each pair of students has the puzzle, one with part A containing half the
solutions, and the other with part B containing the rest. It is advisable to write the
instructions for the activity on each handout since students may forget or not understand
the teacher's oral instructions. In addition, before handing out the puzzle, explain to
the students that the goal is to complete it in pairs without looking at their
partner's copy. Stress the importance of giving one's partner feedback on the initial
definition by asking more questions to allow the students to narrow the possibilities and
negotiate meaning.
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In case the students are
unfamiliar with or have simply forgotten some of the words, give each pair a dictionary,
written for EFL/ESL learners. But, make sure they use it sparingly, since some may simply
decide to read out the dictionary definition verbatim rather than put it in their own
words.
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While students are working
in pairs on the main task, the teacher can circulate, acting as a facilitator when needed,
noting down recurrent language problems that can be cleared up later on the board or OHP
as a follow-up activity with the whole class.
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Part A. You
have a crossword puzzle with only half of the solutions. Your partner has the other half.
When your partner asks for help with missing words (e.g.: "What's 6 across?"),
help him/her by giving clues for your words.
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1D |
O |
W |
N |
2S |
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A |
I |
3R |
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| 4 |
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E |
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U |
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6D |
A |
N |
C |
7E |
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K |
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N |
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V |
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8 |
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9T |
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R |
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N |
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R |
| 10R |
O |
11B |
B |
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R |
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12 |
U |
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G |
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Y |
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13L |
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C |
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14D |
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K |
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15 |
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G |
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| 16 |
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17M |
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N |
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G |
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18 |
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Part B. You
have a crossword puzzle with only half of the solutions. Your partner has the other half.
When your partner asks for help with missing words (e.g.: "What's 4 down?"),
help him/her by giving clues for your words.
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1 |
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2S |
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3 |
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| 4U |
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| 5 N |
O |
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6 |
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7 |
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8S |
L |
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P |
9T |
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P |
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11B |
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12H |
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N |
G |
R |
Y |
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A |
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N |
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13 |
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14D |
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15B |
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| 16Y |
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17 |
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18U |
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T |
A |
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How to make crossword puzzles
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Crossword puzzles for use
in the language classroom are really quite easy to create. First, make a list of words
with which your students should be familiar. This is a good way to recycle vocabulary so
that learners get used to seeing and hearing it. Then search for a letter common to two
words and you're off! It's surprising just how quickly a pattern resembling a crossword
puzzle emerges, very much like in the word game "Scrabble." (Sophisticated
crossword puzzles of newspapers are not your goal). Once you have enough words in the
crossword pattern on your draft, copy half the solutions
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Many EFL teachers support
the theory behind the communicative approach to language teaching but bemoan the lack of
techniques with which to implement this approach. I have described an activity which not
only provides opportunities for meaningful communication between classroom L2 learners but
is also-in the opinion of my students-a lot of fun. Crossword puzzles are useful for
learning and/or reinforcing vocabulary and, in addition, provide a means for helping
students to improve their communication strategies.
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Glenn Wharton is currently a Ph.D. candidate at the University
of Texas at Austin, specializing in TEFL/TESL and Applied Linguistics. He has taught EFL
in Spain, Italy, Austria, and the U.S. |
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Return |
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- Bialystok, E. 1990. Communication strategies. Oxford: Basil
Blackwell.
- Cook, V. 1991. Second language learning and language teaching.
London: Edward Arnold.
- Ellis, R. 1985. Understanding second language acquisition. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
- Kellerman, E., T. Ammerlann, T. Bongaerts and N. Poulisse. 1990.
System and hierarchy in L2 referential communication. In Developing communicative
competence in a second language. eds. R. Scarcella, E. Andersen, and S. Krashen. New York:
Newbury House.
- O'Malley, M. and A. Chamot. 1990. Learning strategies in second
language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Oxford, R. 1990. Language learning strategies. Boston, MA: Heinle
and Heinle.
- Tarone, E. 1983. Some thoughts on the notion of communication
strategy." In Strategies in interlanguage communication. eds. C. Faerch and G.
Kasper. London: Longman.
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